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In March 2019 BEIS released a 2016 report on microreactors that defined them as having a capacity up to 100 MWt/30 MWe, and projecting a global market for around 570 units of an average 5 MWe by 2030, total 2850 MWe. It notes that they are generally not water-moderated or water cooled, but "use a compact reactor and heat exchange arrangement, frequently integrated in a single reactor vessel." Most are HTRs.
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In November 2019 CNL announced that Kairos Power, Moltex Canada, Terrestrial Energy and Ultra Safe Nuclear Corporation (USNC) had been selected as the first recipients of support under its Canadian Nuclear Research Initiative (CNRI). This is designed to accelerate SMR deployment by enabling research and development on particular projects and connecting global vendors of SMR technology with the facilities and expertise within Canada's national nuclear laboratories. Recipients are expected to match the value contributed by CNL either in monetary or in-kind contributions.
The NuScale Power company was spun out of Oregon State University in 2007, though the original development was funded by the US Department of Energy. After NuScale experienced problems in funding its development, Fluor Corporation paid over $30 million for 55% of NuScale in October 2011. In May 2022 NuScale Power announced that it had merged with Spring Valley Acquisition Corp. The combined company, NuScale Power Corporation, is listed on the NYSE. Fluor continues to hold a majority interest in the company, and provide it with engineering services, project management, and administration and supply chain support.
In September 2018 NuScale selected BWX Technologies as the first manufacturer of its SMR after an 18-month selection process. The demonstration unit in Idaho will have dry cooling for the condenser circuit, with a 90% water saving while sacrificing about 5% of its power output to drive the cooling. In mid-2021 Doosan said it was preparing to start the forging fabrication for UAMPS reactor modules in 2022 and Samsung said that NuScale, Fluor and Samsung C&T Corporation would work together to deliver NuScale plants globally.
This was a conceptual design from DCNS (now Naval Group, state-owned), Areva, EdF and CEA from France. It is designed to be submerged, 60-100 metres deep on the sea bed up to 15 km offshore, and returned to a dry dock for servicing. The reactor, steam generators and turbine-generator would be housed in a submerged 12,000 tonne cylindrical hull about 100 metres long and 12-15 metres diameter. Each hull and power plant would be transportable using a purpose-built vessel. Reactor capacity ranged 50-250 MWe, derived from DCNS's latest naval designs, but with details not announced. In 2011 DCNS said it could start building a prototype Flexblue unit in 2013 in its shipyard at Cherbourg for launch and deployment in 2016, possibly off Flamanville, but the project has been cancelled.
These use graphite as moderator (unless fast neutron type) and either helium, carbon dioxide or nitrogen as primary coolant. The experience of several innovative reactors built in the 1960s and 1970sk, notably those in Germany, has been analyzed, especially in the light of US plans for its Next Generation Nuclear Plant (NGNP) and China's launching its HTR-PM project in 2011. Lessons learned and documented for NGNP include the use of TRISO fuel, use of a reactor pressure vessel, and use of helium cooling (UK AGRs are the only HTRs to use CO2 as primary coolant). However US government funding for NGNP has now virtually ceased, and the technology lead has passed to China.
Construction of a larger version of the HTR-10, China's HTR-PM, was approved in principle in November 2005, with preparation for first concrete in mid-2011 and full construction start intended in December 2012. It is also based on the German HTR-Modul design of 200 MWt. Originally envisaged as a single 200 MWe (450 MWt) unit, this will now have twin reactors, each of 250 MWt driving a single 210 MWe steam turbine.*
This is a Generation IV design based partly on the well-proven UK advanced gas-cooled reactors (AGRs). The supercritical direct cycle gas fast reactor (SC-GFR) uses the supercritical CO2 coolant at 20 MPa and 650C from a fast reactor of 200 to 400 MW thermal in Brayton cycle. A small long-life reactor core could maintain decay heat removal by natural circulation. A 2011 paper from Sandia Laboratories describes it. (S-CO2 is applicable to many different heat sources, including concentrated solar. It claims high efficiency with smaller and simpler power plants. With a helium-cooled HTR or sodium-cooled fast reactor, it would be the secondary circuit.)
The commercial-scale plant concept, part of an 'Advanced Recycling Center', would use three power blocks (six reactor modules) to provide 1866 MWe. In 2011 GE Hitachi announced that it was shifting its marketing strategy to pitch the reactor directly to utilities as a way to recycle excess plutonium while producing electricity for the grid. GEH bills it as a simplified design with passive safety features and using modular construction techniques. Its reference construction schedule is 36 months. In October 2016 GEH signed an agreement with Southern Nuclear Development, a subsidiary of Southern Nuclear Operating Company, to collaborate on licensing fast reactors including PRISM. In June 2017 GEH joined a team led by High Bridge Energy Development Co. and including Exelon Generation, High Bridge Associates and URS Nuclear to license PRISM.
In December 2009, AKME-engineering, a 50-50 joint venture, was set up by Rosatom and the En+ Group (a subsidiary of Basic Element Group) as an open joint stock company to develop and build a pilot SVBR unit14. En+ is an associate of JSC EuroSibEnergo and a 53.8% owner of Rusal, which had been in discussion with Rosatom regarding a Far East nuclear power plant and Phase II of the Balakovo nuclear plant. It was to contribute most of the capital, and Rosatom is now looking for another investor. In 2011 the EuroSibEnergo 50% share passed to its subsidiary JSC Irkutskenergo. The main project participants are OKB Gidropress at Podolsk, VNIPIET OAO at St Petersburg, and the RF State Research Centre Institute of Physics & Power Engineering (IPPE or FEI) at Obninsk.
While the element phosphorus (P) is one of the fundamental building blocks of life and essential for food production, there has been very little research on the implications of future phosphorus scarcity for global food security. Ensuring long-term availability and accessibility of phosphorus sources is critical to the future of humanity [1] yet unlike water and energy scarcity, this topic has been largely ignored in research and policy debates on global food security and sustainable resource use until relatively recently. The short-term 800% price spike in phosphate rock and associated fertilizer commodities in 2008 triggered a sharp increase in interest in long-term phosphorus security from the media, policy-makers, farmers, scientists and response from industry and scientific and popular science articles [2].
There is little disagreement regarding the significance of phosphorus to life, and specifically humanity's dependence on phosphorus for food production. However the collective understanding of the nature of phosphorus scarcity is still embryonic and there are numerous sources of confusion, misinterpretation, lack of consensus and uncertainly regarding key issues. This paper aims to clarify some of the sources of misunderstandings and lack of consensus, thereby contributing to clarification of the nature of global phosphorus scarcity. This paper achieves this goal by reviewing and synthesizing the recent body of research on global phosphorus scarcity and sustainable future pathways, drawing both from the authors' own and others' research.
In short, there is no substitute for the element phosphorus in the growth of all living organisms. While other critical global resources, such as oil, can be replaced with renewable energy sources, such as wind or solar power, no other element can replace phosphorus in food production.
While there is little doubt today that phosphorus has played a significant role in feeding the world, humanity is effectively dependent today on phosphorus from mined phosphate rock. Without continual inputs we could not produce food at current global yields. While phosphate rock seemed like a plentiful source of highly concentrated phosphorus, humanity was, and still is, relying on a non-homogenous, non-renewable resource. Increasing environmental, economic, geopolitical and social concerns about the short and long-term use of phosphate rock in agriculture means there is a need to reassess the way crops obtain their phosphorus and humanity is fed [8].
Privatized knowledge: Some commercial data is available, at very high cost. Knowledge production itself (often undertaken by the mining industry) is also not independent and transparent and assumptions can influence findings, such as how long current global phosphate reserves will last;
Analytical: In some instances, data may exist but there is a lack of data collation and synthesis. For example, national data on phosphorus flows could be collated and synthesized from various countries and regions and used to extrapolate to the global scale.
While there may be some fluctuations causing year-to-year variation in phosphate production (due to supply-side or demand-side variables), there will always be a global demand for phosphorus, as argued in section 2);
In the long term, it is widely acknowledged that cheap fertilizers will become a thing of the past. As the remaining reserves decrease (below approximately 50%), capital costs can start to increase exponentially. This will have significant implications for farmers and food production systems. In the short term, an 800% spike in 2008 in the price of phosphate rock and other fertilizer commodities resulted from a combination of factors (including the price of oil, increased demand for fertilizers due to increasingly meat- and dairy-based diets, increased demand for non-food crops like biofuels and lack of short-term supply capacity to produce enough phosphate rock to meet demand). As a result of the price spike, farmers around the world held back on purchasing fertilizers, which partly caused the price to drop. The subsequent global financial crisis led to the sharp decline in demand and hence price. However the global financial crisis also pushed global food insecurity to an unprecedented level, with over one billion people hungry [53]. As of January 2011, the food price index has reached unprecedented levels, and phosphate rock prices are on the increase (Figure 6). There is general consensus that the quality and accessibility of the remaining phosphate reserves are decreasing, and costs are, and will continue to increase. 2ff7e9595c
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